INTRODUCTION
The eighteenth century in India was a period of political changes. The Mughal Empire, after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, started declining. The successors of Aurangzeb could not reverse this trend. The Mughal ubas proclaimed their independence under their respective governors and big zamindars began asserting their authority.
The Portuguese explorer, Vasco-da-Gama had discovered the sea route to India in 1498. It is said that when he returned, he sold the merchandise which he purchased in India, at a profit of 60 times the cost of expedition. This roused the jealousy of other European countries.
ARRIVAL OF EAST INDIA COMPANY
In 1600 AD, Queen Elizabeth I of England granted a charter to the East India Company. The charter gave the sole right to the East India Company to engage in business in India. The Company was a mercantile trading company. Mercantile trading companies in those days did not have to fear competition from other English trading companies and made profits without any competition so as to buy products cheap and sell them there.
The charter from the Queen of England could not prevent traders from other European countries from venturing into India. As a result, the Dutch, Portuguese, Danes and the French also came to India around the same period. They established their trading centres in different parts of the country. The Portuguese set up their base at Calicut, Cochin, Goa, the Dutch at Surat, Bharuch, Agra, the French at Chandernagore and Karaikal and the English at Calcutta and Madras.
In 1664 AD, the French set up their trading centre in India. The French had its headquarters at Puducherry. As a result of both English and French being present in India for a common cause, there was a clash between the two nations which resulted in the Carnatic Wars. The rivalry between the French and British lasted for 25 years until the British established their power.
EAST INDIA COMPANY SETTLES IN BENGAL
In India, the East India Company established trading settlements, managed by the company's recruits called 'factors'. These settlements were called factories. A factory was a place where nothing was manufactured. It consisted of offices, godowns, residential houses for the factors. The Company traded in textiles, indigo, spices and gold. By 1696 they began to fortify their settlements. They also bribed the Mughal officials to give them zamindari rights over three villages. One of the village was Kalikata which later became Calcutta. The English persuaded the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb and later Farrukhsiyar to issue a farman (a royal order) granting the Company to trade duty-free in Bengal. Very soon, the officials of the Company started misusing the terms of the farman. The Company's officials had carried their private trade and were expected to pay duty, but they refused to pay the duty and sent their goods in the name of the Company. This was an enormous loss of revenue for Bengal.
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HOW TRADE LED TO BATTLES
After the death of Aurangzeb, the Nawab of Bengal Murshid Quli Khan asserted his power and authority. Bengal became an independent Suba for all practical purposes. Murshid Quli Khan and his successors Ali Vardi Khan and Siraj-ud-Daulah were strong fulers, they did not let the Company misuse their powers, demanded large tribute for the Company's right to trade and stopped it from extending its fortifications. There was exchange of words and both the Nawab and the Company blamed each other) the Nawab was ruining the trade of Company and the Company was depriving the Bengal government of its revenue.
The conflict led to confrontations which culminated in the Battle of Plassey.
BATTLE OF PLASSEY
After the death of Alivardi Khan in 1756, company officials tried to install a puppet nawab but could not succeed. Siraj-ud-Daulah became angry with these developments and asked company officials to stop interfering in local affairs. He also asked them to pay revenue and to stop any further fortifications, The failure of negotiations led Siraj-ud- Daulah to march with a 30,000 strong force to Kassimbazar. Company officials were disarmed and captured. The warehouse was locked and English ships were blockaded. The Nawab marched to Calcutta to take control of the company's fort.
On hearing the news, Robert Clive led an army from Madras and reached Calcutta. Many rounds of negotiations took place between Robert Clive and Siraj-ud-Daulah. When these negotiations failed, the famous battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757
Company officials succeeded in getting a close associate of Siraj-ud-Daulah on their side. He was Mir Jafar, who was given an assurance that after the defeat of Siraj-ud-Daulah, he would be made the nawab Mir Jafar and his forces did not fight during the battle, and this was a major cause for the defeat of Siraj-ud-Daulah
After the defeat in the Battle of Plassey, Siraj-ud-Daulah was assassinated and Mir Jafar was made the nawab of Bengal. At this time, the Company did not take up administrative responsibilities and decided to work with puppet nawabs Its main aim was to expand its trade. However, they soon found that it was impossible to work with them, as the nawabs were reluctant to become tools in the hands of the Company.
When Mir Jafar protested, he was deposed and Mir Qasim was installed as the new Nawab. When Mir Qasim refused to comply with the demands of the Company, he was defeated at the Battle of Buxar in 1764, driven out of Bengal and Mir Jafar was again made the Nawab. He promised to give 500,000 every month to the Company, but it was insufficient to meet the demands of trade and wars. Mir Jafar died in 1765.
In 1765, the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II granted the Diwani rights of Bengal to the East India Company. Now they could collect the land revenue and use vast resources of Bengal. Earlier, the Company had brought gold and silver to buy the goods in India, now Bengal revenue was used to finance the trade, maintain Company's troops and fight wars.
EXPANSION OF COMPANY'S RULE
After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed Residents in Indian states. They were political or commercial agents and their job was to serve and further the interests of the Company. Through the Residents, the Company officials began interfering in the internal affairs of Indian states. They tried to decide who was to be the successor to the throne, and who was to be appointed in administrative posts, Sometimes the Company forced the states into a "subsidiary alliance". According to the terms of this alliance, Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They were to be protected by the Company, but had to pay for the "subsidiary forces" that the Company was supposed to maintain for the purpose of this protection. If the Indian rulers failed to make the payment, Richard Wellesley was Governor-General (1798-1805), the Nawab of Awadh was forced to give over half of his territory to the Company in 1801, as he failed to pay for the "subsidiary forces". Hyderabad was also forced to cede territories on similar grounds.
The treaties that followed the Battle of Buxar forced Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah to give up much of his authority. Here, however, he poses in regal splendour, towering over the Resident.
Wars with Mysore
The territorial expansion of Mysore under Hyder Ali (1761-82) and later his son Tipu Sultan (1782-99) alarmed the Company, as it was a threat to their political and economic policies. The Company resorted to direct military confrontations. Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar coast, from where the Company purchased pepper and cardamom. Tipu Sultan stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the ports in his kingdom, stopped local merchants from Hyder Ali with British officials dealing with the Company, and entered into close relationship with the French and modernised his army.
The Company retaliated, as it was a threat to their economic interests. Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767-69,1780-84,1790-92 and 1799) known as Anglo-Mysore Wars. Mysore won several wars against the Company under the leadership of Hyder Ali, a great diplomat, and his son Tipu Sultan. Hyder Ali died in 1782 2 during during the the Second Anglo-Mysore War. After it, Tipu Sultan, known as Tiger of Mysore, carried on the war till 1784 when the two sides concluded peace by signing the "Treaty of Mangalore'. In 1792, Tipu was defeated by the alliance of Company with Nizam of Hyderabad and Marathas. He was forced to sign the "Treaty of Seringapatnam'. By this treaty, he paid a huge amount as war indemnity to the Company and his two sons were taken away as hostages.
Finally, Tipu died defending his capital, Seringapatnam in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799). Mysore was restored to the heir of the royal family.
Wars with Marathas
Marathas were divided into many states which were under the rulers of different dynasties, such as the Scindhia, Holkars, Gaekwads and Bhonsles. These states were held together in a confederacy under a Peshwa. The Peshwa was the effective military and administrative head of the Marathas.
Three major wars were fought between the British forces and the Marathas. They are as follows:
1. The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782)
The First War ended in 1782 in which there was no clear victor. The Treaty of Salbai was signed at the end of this war.
2. The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)
The Second War was fought on many fronts, between 1803-1805. At the end of the Second War, the British gained the territories of Orissa (now Odisha), Delhi and Agra.
3. The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818)
The Maratha power was finally crushed in the Third war. The Peshwa was removed and sent to Bithur near Kanpur. He was given a pension for the remaining years of his life.
The Claim of Paramountcy
Lord Hastings, who was the Governor-General from 1813 to 1823 initiated the Policy of Paramountcy. It claimed that the power of the Company was paramount and superior to the Indian states. It was justified in annexing the Indian states if its interest was threatened. This process was challenged when the British tried to annex the small state of Kitoor (in Karnataka). Rani Channamma took up anti-British resistance, she died in prison in 1829. The struggle was continued by Rayanna, a poor chowkidar. He was caught and hanged in 1830.
The Company also entered into war with Afghans. In the 19th century, the Russians were expanding their territories. East India Company feared that they might enter India from the north-west.
They fought a prolonged war with Afghanistan (1838-42) and established their indirect control. Sindh was annexed in 1843. After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the East India Company fought two prolonged wars with the Sikhs and Punjab was annexed by the Company in 1849.
Dalhousie and the Policy of Annexation
Lord Dalhousie came to India as the Governor-General in 1848. He was, from the beginning, determined to extend direct British rule over as large an area as possible. The chief instrument through which Dalhousie implemented his policy of annexation was the Doctrine of Lapse. Under this doctrine, when the ruler of a protected state died without a natural heir, his state was not to pass to an adopted heir as sanctioned by the age old tradition of the country. Many states, including Satara in 1848, Nagpur and Jhansi in 1848, Surat in 1852, Udaipur in 1853, Sambhal in 1850 and Mandavi in 1850, were annexed by applying this doctrine.
Dalhousie also refused to recognise the titles of many ex-rulers or to pay their pensions. Thus, the titles of the Nawabs of Carnatic and of Surat and the Raja of Tanjore were extinguished. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was accused of having misgoverned his state (Awadh) and of refusing to introduce reforms. His state was therefore annexed in 1856.
THE NEW ADMINISTRATION
As the Company acquired more and more territories, it became necessary to introduce new administration in the territories. The Company had already got Bombay, Calcutta, Madras when Warren Hastings became the Governor-General (1773-85). British territories were divided into administrative units called Presidencies. (For administrative purpose, Colonial India was divided into three Presidencies Bombay, Madras and Bengal.) Each was governed by a Governor. The supreme head was the Governor-General.
The East India Company had introduced a new system of justice in 1772. Each district had a civil court (diwani adalat), under the European District Collector, who presided over the civil courts as well as a criminal court (faujdari adalat) under the Qazi and Mufti but under the supervision of the Collector.
Since the local laws were interpreted differently, a code of Hindu laws was compiled. Similarly, a code of Muslim laws was also compiled for the benefit of European judges. Under the Regulating Act, a Supreme Court was established at Calcutta in 1774. A court of appeal, the Sadr Nizamat Adalat was also established at Calcutta.
The main work of the Collector was to collect revenue and taxes, maintain law and order in his district with the help of the judges and police officers called darogas.
The Company Army
The Company Army: Maintaining an army was of much importance to the Company, because they could grow their clout due to their superior military strength. While the Mughal army was mainly composed of untrained foot soldiers armed with bows and arrows, the British army was modern.
The British army was a well-trained and disciplined force. Most of the sepoys were recruited from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand. They were very conscious of their caste and religious difference. They were also paid regular salary.
Mughal emperors and Nawabs used to recruit soldiers from farming families. The British also followed the same policy. This was the period when gunpowder and guns started to replace bows and arrows. The new technology of warfare necessitated changes in the way the army was maintained or trained. An infantry regime was the need of the period. The British started training Indian recruits for better discipline and far more rigorous practice. The need of living in a regimented army meant a clash with age-old notions of caste an untouchability.
By 1857 the Company came to exercise direct rule over about 63 per cent of the territory and 78 per cent of the population of the Indian subcontinent. Combined with its indirect influence on the remaining territory and population of the country, the East India Company had virtually the whole of India under its control.